Authorization Definition - How Federal Agencies are Born

Authorization Definition - How Federal Agencies are Born Did you ever wonder how a federal program or agency came into being? Or why they theres a battle every year over whether they should receive taxpayer money for their operations? The answer is in the federal authorization process. An authorization is defined as a piece of  legislation that establishes or continues one or  more federal agencies or programs, according to the government. An authorization bill that become law either creates a new agency or program and then allows for it to be funded by taxpayer money. An authorization bill typically sets how much money those agencies and programs get, and how they should spend the money.   Authorization bills can create both permanent and temporary programs. Examples of permanent programs are Social Security and Medicare, which are often referred to as  entitlement programs.  Other programs that are not statutorily provided for on a permanent basis are funded annually or every few years as part of the appropriations process. So the creation of federal programs and agencies happens through the authorization process. And the existence of those programs and agencies is perpetuated through the appropriations process. Heres a closer look at the authorization process and the appropriation process.   Authorization Definition   Congress and the president establish programs through the authorization process. Congressional committees with jurisdiction over specific subject areas write the legislation. The term â€Å"authorization† is used because this type of legislation authorizes the expenditure of funds from the federal budget. An authorization may specify how much money should be spent on a program, but it does not actually set aside the money. The allocation of taxpayer money happens during the appropriations process. Many programs are authorized for a specific amount of time. The committees are supposed to review the programs before their expiration to determine how well they are working and whether they should continue to receive funding. Congress has, on occasion, created programs without funding them. In one of the most high-profile examples, the  Ã¢â‚¬Å"No Child Left Behind† education bill  passed during the George W. Bush administration was an authorization bill that established a number of programs to improve the nation’s schools. It did not, however, say the federal  government  would  definitely spend money on the programs. An authorization bill is rather like a necessary hunting license for an appropriation rather than a guarantee, writes  Auburn University political scientist Paul Johnson.  No appropriation can be made for an unauthorized program, but even an authorized program may still die or be unable to perform all its assigned functions for lack of a sufficiently large appropriation of funds. Appropriations Definition In appropriations bills, Congress and the president state the amount of money that will be spent on federal programs during the next fiscal year.   In general, the appropriations process addresses the discretionary portion of the budget – spending ranging from national defense to food safety to education to federal employee salaries, but excludes mandatory spending, such as Medicare and Social Security, which is spent automatically according to formulas, says the Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget. There are 12 appropriations subcommittees in each house of Congress. They are divided among broad subject areas and each writes an annual appropriations measure. The 12 appropriations subcommittees in the House and Senate are: Agriculture, Rural Development, Food and Drug Administration, and Related AgenciesCommerce, Justice, Science, and Related AgenciesDefenseEnergy and Water DevelopmentFinancial Services and General GovernmentHomeland SecurityInterior, Environment, and Related AgenciesLabor, Health and Human Services, Education, and Related AgenciesLegislative BranchMilitary Construction, Veterans Affairs, and Related AgenciesState, Foreign Operations, and Related ProgramsTransportation, Housing and Urban Development, and Related Agencies Sometimes programs dont get the necessary funding during the appropriations process even though theyve been authorized.  In perhaps the most glaring example, critics of the â€Å"No Child Left Behind† education law  say that while Congress and the Bush administration created the program in the authorization process, they never adequately sought to fund them through the appropriations process.   It is possible for Congress and the president to authorize a program but not to follow through with funding for it. Problems With the Authorization and Appropriations System There are a couple of problems with the authorization and appropriations  process. First, Congress has failed to review and reauthorize many programs. But  it also has not let those programs expire. The House and Senate simply waive their rules and set aside money for the programs anyway. Second, the difference between authorizations and appropriations confuses most voters. Most people assume that if a program is created by the federal government  it is also funded. Thats wrong.   [This article was updated in July 2016 by U.S. Politics Expert Tom Murse.]

The Best ACT Reading Practice Tests and Questions

The Best ACT Reading Practice Tests and Questions SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Doing well on ACT Reading requires a fair amount of practice, especially if you’re not used to the format and timing of the test. In order to get the most out of your study time, you need to be using the highest quality practice materials available to you. In this article, I’ll go through some of the best resources for ACT Reading practice tests and tell you why you should use them! High Quality Practice Tests Are Important for ACT Reading! Many students don’t realize the importance of making sure the practice materials they’re using are super high quality.If you practice with shoddy materials, you’re going to get shoddy results - that’s just life.This holds as true for ACT Reading as it does for anything else. Some test prep companies put out books with their own practice questions that are not from the official ACT. DON’T RELY JUST ON THESE QUESTIONS! Some of them are ok, but if you want to get the most out of your practice sessions, you should start with official questions.If you’re not practicing for ACT Reading with real ACT materials, you’re not going to be learning the exact skills you need to beat the test. Since the ACT is a standardized test, the more questions you practice that follow the real ACT standardization model, the easier it’s going to be to understand the answers and feel confident on the real test.On reading, it’s important not only that you’re practicing with real ACT questions but also that you’re reading real passages that were included on the ACT at one time or another. These passages will be calibrated for difficulty level, length, and reading time in ways that only ACT, Inc. fully understands (and that can't necessarily be faithfully replicated by test prep companies). There are two components to each question on the reading section: the question itself and the passage it references.If either one of these components on a practice test is different from what you will actually see on the ACT, you could have a problem with discrepancies between your expected results and your actual results when confronted with the real test. Here’s a list of different practice test resources in different media that you should use for reliable ACT Reading prep. Free Official ACT Reading Printable Tests ACT Practice Test 2015-2016 (Form 72CPRE)ACT Practice Test 2014-15 (Form 67C)ACT Practice Test 2011-12 (Form 64E)ACT Practice Test 2008-09 (Form 61C)ACT Practice Test 2005-06 (Form 59F) These free PDFs of past ACTs are your best bet to get the most accurate score predictions and most true-to-life practice test experiences.It’s absolutely critical for ACT practice that you use real questions put out by ACT, Inc. first and foremost, and try to avoid questions devised by test prep companies.The only way you’ll be prepared for the reading questions on the test is if you are used to answering questions with the same phrasing and structure.You want to get used to the types of passages you’ll see on the real ACT reading and what kinds of questions are asked about them. You should also remember to time yourself accurately whenever you take a practice test!That means giving yourself exactly 35 minutes for the reading section.Otherwise, you’re not going to get an accurate picture of your scores in a real test environment.For PDF tests, you should print them out and make a separate answer sheet for yourself to write down the answer to each question so that you can replicate testing conditions as closely as possible. If you really want to replicate testing conditions accurately, you should take it in a school classroom. But only if you have permission. Then again, if you break into your school to take an ACT practice test you might become famous as the world's nerdiest criminal, so there are pluses and minuses. Online ACT Reading Resources ACT Online Program This costs $25 and will give you two extra practice tests.Don’t use it for the actual practice lessons because they’re not very helpful; it’s just a way for you to get access to some extra official practice questions. PrepScholar Test Prep Platform This is our test prep program which tailors questions to your studying needs.It includes up to 5 official ACTs as a part of your customized study plan. If you click on the link above you cansign up for a 5 day free trial to see how it works! Just to let you know, our questions are technically not official, though our test experts have worked very hard to get them as close as possible to the format of the real test. PrepScholar also costs money after the free trial, but you'll get your money back if your scores don't improve. Print Resources The Real ACT 3rd Edition or "Red Book" This book costs $20.It’s your best bet for realistic practice tests because it has questions from, obviously, the Real ACT.There are 7 full-length practice tests in this book, and 5 of them are actual previously administered ACTs.Try to lean towards using the most recent practice tests that are included in the book.There is a general consensus that the ACT has gotten harder over the years, so your scores might be skewed high as compared to what you should expect on the real test if you take more out of date practice tests. While this book is great for practice materials, it’s not as helpful in terms of test taking strategies, which is why you should use it in conjunction with my next recommendation, the Black Book, so you get the best of both worlds. ACT Black Book This book costs $20 as well.It doesn’t have practice questions of its own, but you can use it alongside the Real ACT 3rd Edition or â€Å"Red Book† because it refers to questions in the Real ACT 3rd Edition as examples. You can't use the Black Book in isolation. The Black Book is helpful because it provides a no-nonsense approach to the test that works across subject areas. It’s dedicated to teaching you how the test works and how you can beat it.It also gives you in-depth descriptions of the reasons behind answer choices, which are lacking in the Red Book. The Black Book can be wordy and does require a high level of engagement from the reader, so make sure you’re prepared to read closely and pay attention. You’re going to get out of it what you put in! The Complete Guide to ACT Readingby Erica Meltzer This book costs $30, so it’s a little pricier.It provides realistic passages and questions for you to study from so that you’ll be prepared for anything the test throws at you.It also identifies the skills you’ll need to do well very effectively, even though these skills are more difficult to nail down in reading than in, say, math. You can read our complete review of this book here. Summary In your studying for ACT Reading, always remember to use the highest quality practice materials available to you.This means official questions from ACT, Inc., not questions manufactured by test prep companies that might be easier than real ACT questions or an inaccurate reflection of what’s covered on the test. You can use one of the free PDFs of past ACTs, reliable online resources, or high quality review books to get the best practice materials. If you can avoid it, don’t settle for anything less than the real thing! What's Next? Now that you know which materials you should be using to practice for the ACT Reading section, you should also check out my article on our best tips to raise your reading scores. Before you dive into practice materials, you might also want to read this article on the fundamental strategy that you should keep in mind for all ACT Reading questions. For a guide to go along with your practice materials, take a look at our article on the best way to practice ACT Reading so you can make sure you're getting the most out of your time! Want to improve your ACT score by 4 points? Check out our best-in-class online ACT prep program. We guarantee your money back if you don't improve your ACT score by 4 points or more. Our program is entirely online, and it customizes what you study to your strengths and weaknesses. If you liked this Reading lesson, you'll love our program.Along with more detailed lessons, you'll get thousands ofpractice problems organized by individual skills so you learn most effectively. We'll also give you a step-by-step program to follow so you'll never be confused about what to study next. Check out our 5-day free trial:

New Organizational Forms - Innovativeness To Attain Competitive Essay

New Organizational Forms - Innovativeness To Attain Competitive Advantage - Essay Example Clegg, Kornberger, and Pitsis noted that more and more companies are embracing new organizational forms. The new forms, as Clegg et al. explain, are readily replacing reliance on market oriented governance arrangements and embracing stronger centralization and joint decision making approaches. Organizations are rapidly changing their operations towards larger customer oriented units and relying on a rich set of integration mechanisms within these entities. This largely results in different forms of internal hybrids that enhance lateral sharing of individual and organization knowledge, aimed at achieving economies of scale and scope. Similarly, as Green elaborates, companies through the HR have to strategize on setting a single set of metrics to gauge all the manpower, in ensuring effective integration of these business units as businesses reshape into a larger customer oriented units according to the global business environment. Weber’s bureaucracy theory presents the best sce nario of the new organizational forms. Clegg et al. (2012) note that Weber’s bureaucracy theory requires that jurisdictional areas be well specified with activities that are well distributed as personal official duties, whereas the traditional approach requires activities to be delegated by the leader and can be changed at any particular time. In addition, Weber noted that officials in the organization have to be chosen based on technical qualifications, appointed and not elected, and well compensated to motivate them to perform.

ACCOUNTING ASSIGNMENT Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

ACCOUNTING - Assignment Example The following suggestions are discussed in depth in this report. We are under budget on revenue and over budget on expenses. This means that we are under budget on the profit. We do not have a balance sheet and the accounts on our Profit & Loss report are general accounts at best. There is no record of what types of appointments the customers are requesting instead we know the quantity of them but not the quality of the appointments. We have a retail area that accounts for a small percentage of the revenue. We do not know how long customers are here for their appointments so instead we guess at it. We do not suffer from seasonality therefore we have a steady stream of clients coming in all year round. This opens up a great opportunity for us to track repeat customers as well as new customers. We have the privilege of having great name recognition within the community which helps us to get repeat business. We also do not have any direct competition and this helps us to constantly keep a steady flow of customers coming through the doors. Our main weakness starts with our inability to track our clients and our personnel. We do not know what type of massage our customers want until they are in the room with one of our therapists. This makes it difficult to decide which types of massage to offer and not offer. It also makes it difficult to determine prices for each type of massage. We have the opportunity to cross sell our customers if we were to improve our methods of reporting information. Our retail sales could increase if we were to focus in on our customers’ needs by keeping better records of each one and what they request while they are here. We could also use this information for marketing any new services. We need to have a better grasp on the budget. Our numbers are way off and we need to get a better idea of what our projections should be. Our projections should be based off our prior year along with some growth

Taxation Law and Practice A Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Taxation Law and Practice A - Case Study Example This is in order to avoid double taxation as Joe is still going to pay income tax on this amount as part of his income. The bonus payment of $5,000 shall not be considered for this particular period. This is because it was paid to Joe on 10 July 2014 .This particular date falls outside of the financial year 2013/14 that runs from 1July 2013 to 1 July 2014. In Section 8.1 of the ITAA97, the company is allowed to deduct any amounts from its assessable income if this amount was incurred in the gaining or the production of the assessable income. In this situation, the amount paid to Joe was for his skills as a labourer. This skill enabled the company to conduct its business and hence be able to make income from its activities. It is therefore right to assume that the amount the company paid to Joe should not be taxed and is therefore a deductible from the assessable income of the company. MM have to pay employee super. The Superrannuation Guarantee (Administration) Act 1992 governs the relationship between employees and their employers. It includes details about the employer’s liability in the making of the payments. It also states how the calculation of the super guarantee charge is done. Contributions should be paid by the 28th of the month that follows the end of the quarter1. Failure to do this will result in the payment of a superannuation charge by the employers. Joe is qualified to have this payment made for him on his behalf by the company. The requirements are that the employee should be over 18 years old and they should earn more than $450 before taxation in a calendar month. Super payments are normally calculated and made after every three months. The payment of a former employee of backdated payments means that the super payments that had accrued to that employee must also be paid. The employees that are excluded from this arrangement include those who earn less than $ 450 in a month. Employees who are

Physiology Of Sleep

Physiology Of Sleep Physiology Of Sleep Introduction Sleep is a state of reversible unconsciousness in which the brain is low responsive to external stimuli. We are functionally blind during sleep with no response to visual stimuli and a decreased threshold of response to auditory stimuli. Babies have been exposed to sound of up to 100 dB, which is above the legal limit for ear protection for employees, without waking up. In adults, the action is selective demonstrating continuing cortical function. For example, a sleeping mother is woken by her crying baby but not by other louder noises. Definition of sleep and sleeping Phases with specific EEG patterns and physiological changes. Natural sleep is separated into two distinctive states: non rapid eye movement (N.R.E.M) and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. NREM sleep is then further seperated into 4 stages where stage 1 is the lightest and stage 4 the deepest level of sleep. REM sleep is divided into phasic and tonic phases. The two distinctive states follow a regular pattern called a sleep cycle which, in an adult, lasts about 1 and half hours and comprises a period of N.R.E.M sleep followed by REM sleep. The cycles may be separated by a period of wakefulness and are repeated 3–6 times each night and are typically displayed as an hypnogram (Fig. 1). The majority of deep (stage 4) NREM sleep occurs in the first and second cycles. As the night progresses, the proportion of REM sleep in a cycle increases and the NREM element is of lighter stage 2 sleep. Age has a major effect on the duration of sleep and the ratio of NREM/REM sleep. Neonates sleep 16–18 h. It is widely distributed throughout the day with REM sleep accounting for 50% of total sleep time (TST). This may be even greater in premature babies. By the age of 24 months, children should sleep 10 h per day, mainly at night with one or two naps during the daytime and REM sleep has declined to 20–25% of TST. Adults normally sleep 6–8 h per day with 15–20% REM sleep. With increasing age, TST changes little although sleep is more fragmented with more frequent and longer awakenings (decreased sleep efficiency) with less REM sleep and more light NREM sleep. Night-time sleep may be decreased if naps are taken during the day. Functions of sleep The functions of sleep are still poorly understood. However, the observation that sleep (or, at  least, an activity–inactivity cycle) is present in all species and has been preserved throughout evolution and that sleep deprivation leads to a drastic deterioration in cognitive  function and eventually to mental and physical morbidity proves its importance. It has been suggested that sleep might conserve energy by reducing core temperature slightly and lowering metabolic rate by 10% compared with quiet wakefulness. Sleep would prevent perpetual activity as a response to environmental stimuli leading to excessive energy consumption. However, sleep is a state of starvation and there is no evidence that sleep is important for tissue repair. Sleep has been implicated as an important factor in storage of long-term memory. Facts learned during the day are usually better remembered the next morning whereas facts learned shortly before going to sleep are often poorly recalled. Electrophysiological features of sleep The stages of sleep are characterised by typical patterns of electroencephalogram (EEG), electro-myogram (EMG) and electro oculogram (EOG) activity Wakefulness with open eyes is characterised by an EEG with dominant low amplitude, high frequency beta activity of  16–25 Hz. Muscle tone is normally high with high to moderate EMG activity. Stage 1 Sleep is usually initiated by a transition from wakefulness to a state of drowsiness with closed eyes and a shift from EEG beta activity to alpha activity of 8–12 Hz passing to Stage 1  NREM sleep with a mixed frequency EEG-pattern with low amplitude theta waves of 3–7 Hz accompanied by slow rolling eye movements. Involuntary muscle clonus occurs frequently,  resulting in jerky movement of the whole body (hypnic jerks) and EMG activity is moderate-to-low. This stage lasts typically only 5–10 min, during which time minor auditory stimuli will cause arousal. Stage 2 Stage 2 is characterised by short bursts of high frequency activity (12–15 Hz – sleep spindles) and K-complexes (large amplitude biphasic waves). Bodily movements continue and  the EMG activity is low-to-moderate. This stage is generally short (10–20 min) in the first 1–2 cycles but predominates in later cycles. It is the most abundant sleep stage in adults  accounting for up to 50% of TST. Stages 3 and 4 Deep NREM sleep stages 3 and 4, sometimes combined as slow wave sleep (SWS) are characterized by high amplitude low frequency delta waves (> 75 µV and 0.5–2 Hz) with stage  3 having between 20–50% and stage 4 more than 50% delta activity. EMG activity is low and eye movements are rare. Arousal through auditory stimuli from this stage of sleep is  difficult and, if awakened, the individual is often disorientated and slow to react. Return to sleep is easy and short arousals (< 30 sec) are rarely remembered. REM sleep NREM sleep is followed by REM sleep, the proportion increasing with each cycle. REM sleep is characterised by a fast mixed frequency low voltage EEG with saw-tooth waves and  rapid eye movements on the EOG. During the tonic phases of REM sleep, there is marked reduction of muscle tone and EMGactivity in skeletal muscles. The tonic phases of REM sleep are interrupted by short episodes of phasic REM sleep with increased EMG activity and limb twitches. The atonia of REM sleep affects all skeletal muscles, except the diaphragm and the upper airway muscles, and is associated with hyperpolarisation of the ÃŽ ±-motor neurones. The purpose of this may be to prevent the acting out of dreams. About 10% of the population have experienced sleep paralysis (i.e. wakening from sleep and finding that the atonia has  persisted into wakefulness). It can be frightening but is entirely harmless. Natural wakening usually occurs from REM sleep. Subjects woken from REM sleep are much more likely to rec all dream content than those awakened from NREM sleep. NREM dreams are generally vague and formless in contrast to REM dreams. Physiological changes during sleep Respiratory system During NREM sleep, there is a decrease in respiratory drive and a reduction in the muscle tone of the upper airway leading to a 25% decrease in minute volume and alveolar ventilation and a doubling of airway resistance accompanied by a small (0.5 kPa) increase in  PaCO2 and decrease in PaO2. Hypercarbic and hypoxic ventilator drives are reduced compared with wakefulness. The breathing pattern is regular except at the transition from wakefulness into sleep when brief central apnoeas are common. During REM sleep there is a further decrease in hypercarbic and, particularly, hypoxic ventilatory drives. The breathing pattern is irregular especially during phasic REM sleep. The loss of skeletal muscle tone in REM sleep affects the intercostal and other muscles which stabilise the chest wall during inspiration. In infants, this may be seen as paradoxical movement of the rib cage and abdomen. In adults, there may be maldistribution of ventilation and impaired ventilation–perfusion matching with consequent arterial hypoxaemia. In normal subjects, this is unimportant but it may be very important in patients with chronic lung disease or abnormalities of the thoracic (e.g. kyphoscoliosis). The great majority of patients with impaired respiratory function will be at their worst during REM sleep. Cardiovascular system Blood pressure decreases during NREM and tonic REM sleep but may increase above waking values during phasic REM sleep. Cardiac output is generally decreased during all sleep  phases. Systemic vascular resistance (SVR) and the heart rate are both reduced during NREM and tonic REM sleep and increased during phasic REM sleep. Central nervous system Cerebral blood flow (CBF) increases by 50–100% above the level of resting wakefulness during tonic REM sleep and is even greater during phasic REM sleep. Cerebral metabolic rate, oxygen consumption and neuronal discharge rate are reduced during NREM sleep but increased above resting values during REM sleep. The autonomic nervous system shows a general decrease in sympathetic tone and an increase in parasympathetic tone,  except in phasic REM sleep. Renal system The glomerular filtration speed and filtration fraction are reduced and ADH secretion is increased resulting in a less volume concentrated urine. Endocrine system The secretion of several hormones is directly linked to the sleep/wake cycle. Melatonin is released from the pineal gland under the control of the supra-chiasmatic nuclei (SCN) in a 4–5h pulse, usually beginning at the onset of darkness (~9 pm). The pulse is inhibited or delayed by exposure to bright light in the evening. It is best regarded as being permissive of sleep (‘opening the gate to sleep’) rather than as an hypnotic, as it is possible to maintain wakefulness during this period. Growth hormone is mostly secreted during the first episode of SWS, particularly  during puberty. Prolactin concentrations also increase shortly after sleep onset and decrease with wakefulness. Sleep phase delay delays secretion of both of these hormones. The secretion of cortisol decreases with the onset of sleep and reaches a trough in the early hours of the morning and a peak just after waking. Temperature control In contrast to anaesthesia, thermoregulation is maintained during sleep. However, the shivering threshold is decreased and body core temperature decreases by about 0.5 °C in humans and 2 °C  in hibernating mammals. Body temperature is linked to the circadian rhythm and reaches its nadir at about 3 am. Thermoregulation is quite good in human infants compared with  other species. Control of sleep Sleep follows a circadian (~1 day) cycle, the periodicity of which is regulated by an independent genetically determined ‘intrinsic clock’ which is entrained to a 24 h cycle by external cues (Zeitgebers) such as light, darkness, clock time, working patterns and meal times. When a human being is deprived of all external time clues and is exposed to constant levels of illumination (‘free running’), the wake/sleep cycle typically lengthens to about 24.5 h. Subjects who are born blind without any appreciation of light generally free run while those blinded in later lifeor who retain some perception of light remain entrained. All living organisms, including plants and fungi, have been found to have clock genes and to show an inactivity/activity cycle. In mammals, control of the intrinsic clock is located in the SCN on either side of the third ventricle, just above the optical chiasm. In animal experiments, its destruction leads to a change from the normal sleep cycle into several shorter sleep/activity periods during the day. As noted above, melatonin secretion is  prompted by the SCN just before the usual time of sleep onset. A mismatch of this pattern with sleeping time, as occurs in shift workers and after trans-meridian flights, leads to sleep disturbance (‘jet lag’) as the subject is trying to sleep during their circadian day. Light therapy can be helpful in re-setting the circadian clock and the interested reader is referred to the bibliography. The propensity to fall asleep varies throughout the day and depends upon both circadian factors (process C) and time since the last sleep period (process S). The longer the time since the  last sleep period, the greater will be process S. However, its propensity will be modulated by process C. The circadian pressure to sleep is greatest at ~2 am with a secondary peak at ~2 pm. It is least at ~6 am and ~6 pm. If a subject elects to stay awake throughout the night, they will feel most sleepy in the small hours of the morning but will get a ‘second wind’ as morning approaches and the circadian pressure to sleep declines. If wakefulness is maintained, a second period of sleepiness and relative alertness will follow in early afternoon and early evening, respectively. Some of the 8-h sleep debt will be recovered that night but process C will ensure that awakening will occur at or shortly after the normal waking time. Sleep is normally an actively initiated and not a passive process. Unless a subject is sleep deprived, successful initiation of sleep depends both upon the phase of the circadian clock and  external factors (recumbent position, darkness, reducing sensory input). Over the years, considerable effort has been focused on a search for: (i) a ‘sleep centre’, a nucleus or region in the brain where stimulation or ablation would lead to sleep; and (ii) a hormone or transmitter which would reliably induce sleep. Neither have been found because the mechanisms resulting in sleep are complex and diffuse. During wakefulness, the CNS is dominated by activity of the ascending reticular activating system (RAS) in the brain stem. This formation receives sensory input from all peripheral sensors and projects to the thalamus and the cortex. Its main neurotransmitters are acetylcholine, noradrenaline, dopamine and histamine which explains the sedative effect of antagonists to these  substances. A decrease in its activity permits sleep to be initiated by suppressing incoming external stimuli. The induction of SWS is associated with the secretion of ÃŽ ³-aminobutyric acid (GABA) from basal forebrain neurones. Therefore, it is not surprising that benzodiazepines and barbiturates, which act through stimulation of GABA receptors in the CNS, induce sleep or anaesthesia. Cholinergic mechanisms initiate REM sleep through stimulation of pontine neurones in the  lateral portion of the pontine tegmentum and the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis. In animal experiments, injection of carbachol (acetylcholine agonist) induces instantaneous REM sleep. Recently, orexins (hypocretin) have been isolated in the hypothalamus and appear to be important in the control of REM sleep and appetite. CSF concentrations of orexins have been found to be very low in patients with narcolepsy. Influence of surgery and anaesthesia on sleep Anaesthesia and surgery can have a profound effect upon sleep. On the first night after surgery, sleep architecture is severely disrupted with little or no SWS and REM sleep. The  light Stage 2 sleep is fragmented with frequent awakenings. The degree of disruption appears to be related to the severity of the surgical insult. The mechanism is unclear but it is probably due to a combination of the surgical stress and the effects of opioid analgesics. Recovery of lost SWS and REM sleep occurs on postoperative nights 2–5, being later after major surgery. This coincides with the nadir of postoperative pulmonary function and several  studies have demonstrated marked hypoxaemia associated with the rebound of REM sleep. It was a logical step to attribute postoperative myocardial ischaemia, myocardial infarction, pulmonary embolism and cerebral disorder (delirium and cognitive impairment) to nocturnal hypoxaemia. However, a number of studies have failed to confirm these presumed associations,  although this does not exclude the possibility that the hypoxaemia may be important in some individuals. Key references Ambrosini MV, Giuditta B. Learning and sleep: the sequential hypothesis. Sleep Med Rev2001;5: 477–90 Dijk DJ, Lockley SW. Functional genomics of sleep and circadian rhythm: integration of human sleep-wake regulation and circadian rhythmicity.J Appl Physiol 2002;92: 852–62 Douglas N.Clinician’s Guide to Sleep Medicine. Edinburgh:Arnold, 2002   Ebrahim IO et al. The hypocretin/orexin system. J R Soc Med 2002;95: 227–30 Kryger MH, Roth T, Dement WC. (eds) Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine, 3rd edn. Philadelphia: 2000. Nicolau MC et al.Why we sleep: the evolutionary pathway to the mammalian sleep pattern.Prog Neurobiol2000;62: 379–406 Saper CB, Chou TC, Scammell TE.The sleep switch: hypothalamic control of sleep and wakefulness.Trends Neurosci2001;24: 726–31 Shneerson JM.Handbook of Sleep Medicine. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000 Williams JM, Hanning CD. Obstructive sleep apnoea,BJA CEPD Rev2003; 3: 75–78

Amazon :: science

Amazon The Amazon River is the second longest river in world. The headwaters begin high in the soaring Andes Mountains and stretches 6,400 km across the South American continent to the Atlantic Ocean. It discharges between 34 to 121 million liters of water per second, and depositing an average of 3 million tons of sediments near its mouth. The outpouring of water and residue is so vast that the salt content and the color of the Atlantic Ocean are altered for a distance of about 320km from the mouth of the river. Also, unlike many other rivers it ¡Ã‚ ¯s wide and straight from the headwaters to the mouth. During a new or full moon, a wave front from the ocean sweeps 650km upstream at speeds of 65km/h and this causes waves as high as 5m. Because of its vastness, annual floods, and navigability, the Amazon River is often called the Ocean River. The Amazon River is the largest and wettest tropical plain on Earth with heavy rains. Europeans were not the original keepers of this vast rainforest. The Amazonians are trapped between the old and new customs, and since they have traditions, their technology isn ¡Ã‚ ¯t as modern as the rest of the worlds ¡Ã‚ ¯. They live on the richest land with a wide variety of flora and fauna. With such great resources, including the river as transportation, almost anybody would want to seize the land and gain profits easily. The Amazonians have little power to defend themselves with spears against their guns. Unfortunately, the outside world has brought them diseases that are incurable with their own medicine. They cannot exist in the way they were before, but they know the Amazon better than any of us. If the rich businessmen listened to them instead of stealing from them, they might be able to improve the usage of the Amazon. All the tributaries merge into the Amazon River, but not all have an identical color. White-water rivers, the ice and snow from the Andes Mountains washes off soil nutrients from the rocks, allowing the water to have a dirty yellowish color. Clear-water rivers are azure-green in color; they barely contain any sediment. These rivers arise from the highlands that are created by hard rock that doesn ¡Ã‚ ¯t easily erode. Dark black-water river of the Rio Negro washes over old rocks, which are rich in minerals. The name  ¡Ã‚ °Amazon ¡Ã‚ ± just isn ¡Ã‚ ¯t any old name.

Milgram Behavioural Study of Obedience Essay

The method used by Milgram was the laboratory experiment. The main advantage that Milgram had with this method was the amount of control he had over the situation. He controlled what the participants saw, heard and experienced and was able to manipulate their behaviour through what they were exposed to. This method also allowed accurate measurement of variables and the clear standardised procedures meant that replication was possible. The disadvantages of this method include low ecological validity and the influence of demand characteristics on the participants and it could be argued that they were behaving in the way that they thought was expected of them rather than producing natural behaviour. Milgram has also been heavily criticised regarding the ethics of this study (see below) . Was the sample representative? Milgram’s sample was a self-selected sample of 40 males obtained through advertising. This could be regarded as being a biased sample as they were all male American citizens. They were also volunteers and the majority of the population is unlikely to volunteer to take part in research and those who do may be atypical of the target population in some way. Hence there may be problems generalising from these results. What type of data was collected? The data collected was quantitative in that it involved measuring participants’ obedience level, numerically, in terms of how far up the voltage scale they were prepared to go. This type of data has the advantage of being easy to compare and statistically analyse. However, Milgram included no qualitative descriptions of why the participants obeyed or how they felt during the experiment although there are a few brief descriptions of participants’ behaviour during the experiment. Does this study have high or low Ecological Validity? As with all laboratory experiments there are problems with Milgram’s study regarding its ecological validity. It involved an extremely unusual task carried out under very artificial conditions and as such, is likely to have produced very unnatural behaviour from the participants. This has implications for the extent to which we can generalise from these results to real life situations and it can be argued that the study tells us nothing about obedience in everyday life but simply shows us how obedient these people were, in this environment, performing this task. Was the study ethical? Milgram’s study was probably one of the most unethical pieces of psychological research ever conducted. It can be criticised in terms of almost all the British Psychological Society Ethical Guidelines including informed consent, deception, right to withdraw and protection from harm. However, in Milgram’s defence, we can argue that he did not expect the participants to obey to the extent that they did or to find the task so stressful. He also conducted a thorough debriefing and follow-up monitoring of his participants. A survey conducted one year later revealed that 84% of the participants were glad to have taken part in the study and psychiatric examinations of them showed that none had suffered long term harm. What does this study tell us about Individual and Situational Explanations of behaviour? The individual explanation for the behaviour of the participants would be that it was something about them as people that caused them to obey, but a more realistic explanation is that the situation they were in influenced them and caused them to behave in the way that they did. Some of the aspects of the situation that may have influenced their behaviour include the formality of the location, the behaviour of the experimenter and the fact that it was an experiment for which they had volunteered and been paid. How useful is this research and to what extent can it be applied to everyday life? As stated previously, the stimulus for this study was the Holocaust and this study has contributed significantly to the discussions regarding the behaviour of the Germans at this time. In particular, it provides strong evidence against the ‘Germans are different’ hypothesis. It also gives a valuable insight into the power of situations and of authority. The results suggest that we have a natural tendency to obey authority figures even when we feel that what we are being asked to do is morally wrong. However, the applications are restricted by the methodological limitations such as low ecological validity and an unrepresentative sample.

5 Questions to Consider When Writing for Children

5 Questions to Consider When Writing for Children 5 Questions to Consider When Writing for Children 5 Questions to Consider When Writing for Children By Mark Nichol â€Å"I want to write a book for children† gets you about as far as saying, â€Å"I want to write fiction† or â€Å"I want to write nonfiction.† It’s a start, but only that. There are many forms and genres and age groups to consider, and though you can certainly move fluidly among them, what you’re going to write right now needs more focus. As you develop your ideas for a children’s book, be sure to answer these questions: 1. What do you want to write about? Is your book going to be autobiographical or semiautobiographical? Is it about a natural phenomenon, or a historical event, or a social issue? It is about a cultural or artistic topic? Write a sentence no longer than any of the ones in this paragraph that summarizes what the book is about. Or step back even further and try a tagline like the snappy phrase on a movie poster or a book’s back cover that encapsulates the theme. (The tagline for one story I’ve been working on is simply â€Å"Believe.† Another theme is â€Å"Friends don’t hesitate.†) 2. What form will the story take? Is the book nonfiction, explaining a scientific concept or exploring an issue from the past or present? Or is it going to be a fictional account of a scientific discovery or a story that takes place during a significant historical event or cultural movement? Either form may serve the subject matter well, but you must decide which one this project will take before you develop the narrative. 3. What’s the target demographic? â€Å"Children’s books† is a huge category. Are you writing for beginning readers, elementary school students, preteens, or adolescents? Will children of one gender or another be more likely to read your book? Is it directed toward a certain ethnic group (but written in such a way that others don’t feel excluded)? Research reading levels and match your book’s vocabulary to the intended age range. Decide who the ideal reader is, and check your work frequently to make sure you’re focusing on that child. If you repeatedly veer off, don’t try to force yourself to get back on target when it’s obviously not the right fit. Change the target. 4. What’s my word count? For very young children, picture books (generally 28 pages in a 32-page book with up to a few sentences on each page) are the norm. You should be able to tell your story or account in as little as a few dozen words for preschoolers to up to several hundred for seven- or eight-year-olds. Chapter books novels for readers this age or slightly older, might have up to a thousand words or so. Preteens can handle up to 40,000 words or so, and young teenagers about twice that; books for older adolescents, like those for adults, are often 100,000 words or more. 5. How do I want readers to feel? Basically, comfort young readers, and challenge older ones. For preadolescents of any age, nonfiction should not frighten children with stark facts about environmental crisis, for example, and fiction should not expose them to unhappy or uncomfortable circumstances. The violence and turmoil of the kind found in fairy tales and myths is acceptable, but real-life mayhem is off limits. Teenagers, on the other hand, are coming to grips with reality and can more or less handle more adult-themed materials as long as it’s not explicit or bleak. Psychological issues, familial and societal friction, and other mature themes are appropriate when handled evenhandedly. Even books for adolescents, however, should have upbeat conclusions. (Comeuppance for villains or reprobates is fine, but sympathetic characters, while they should be given obstacles and ordeals to overcome and can experience physical and psychological pain, should emerge from the story intact.) Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Fiction Writing category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Homograph ExamplesAwoken or Awakened?Adverbs and Hyphens

SLP internal analysis and SWOT Analysis

SLP internal analysis and SWOT Analysis Introduction Resource Based View is a modern day management tool that is used in crafting company’s strategy using the available resources and distinctive capabilities. One of the ways of achieving this is the use of Economic Values Added (EVA) or the Economic Rent (Connely, 2010). The EVA is gotten by subtracting the firm’s Net Operating Profit After tax (NOPAT) from the multiplication of the firm’s cost of capital by the firm’s capital i.e. NOPAT – (CAPITAL * COST OF CAPITAL).Advertising We will write a custom coursework sample on SLP internal analysis and SWOT Analysis specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More A firm’s competitive advantage is therefore determined by its ability to use the available resources and utilize the core competencies to achieve targeted objectives (Barney, 1991). This paper discusses the various resources and competencies that an organizational can use to achieve competitiv e advantage over other firms. Sources Ensuing are two sources that offer information about these resources and competencies that provide a foundation for the formulation of a firm’s strategy. https://www.marketingteacher.com/swots these internal factors are resources such as human capital, patents, skills, goodwill and physical resources such as equipment and buildings. The disadvantage of this source is that the firm only uses internal environment to formulate the strategy ignoring the external environment which presents conditions that a business operates in. https://fba.aiub.edu/Files/Uploads/MGT110043.pdf. In his book, Henry presents the resource based view as a management tool for strategy formulation. Distinctive capabilities are useful in a firm’s competitiveness since the competitors are unable to duplicate them. The limitations of this source are that it looks at the firm which is established and has heavily invested in research and developments thus have acqu ired competencies in the specific operation area. Small firms are therefore not able to use these types of resources. Resources Resources are the inputs that a company uses in all the functional areas of its operations to produce the desired output and thus achieve the set target (Comeford Callaghan, 2011). Financial resources ensure that a firm has adequate amount of liquid cash to carry out the operations as well as finance the expected investments. This keeps the firm’s value high since its equity is not composed of large amounts of debt.Advertising Looking for coursework on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Human resources are other important organizations physical resources that ensure that the firm’s operations are of high quality. A workforce that is highly competent will make sure that the firm’s products are of high quality and also the firm employs efficient producti on methods resulting in low production costs. Technical resources are intangible resources which enhance a firm’s products quality. Advanced technical knowledge in the production process ensures that the firm’s products are preferred over the competitors since they are of superior quality (Barney, 1991). This therefore acts as an important resource that will form a basis of customer loyalty hence boosting a firm’s profitability. Intellectual resources are resources that a firm has acquired through research and development. These include patents and copyrights. Patents ensure that a firm possesses the exclusive right over certain means of production (Barney, 1991). A firm considers patents as important assets since it is able to employ unique production methods to achieve better results than the competitors. Goodwill is resources which a firm bears that make provide a competitive advantage over others. It may be in form of location, first mover advantage or custo mer loyalty. Goodwill usually puts a firm at a better state than the competitors and usually results in customer loyalty. It is therefore important in formulation of the firm’s strategy since it will ensure that firm strategic location and actions that will make it favorable over the competitors. A firm’s reputation ensures that it bears goodwill and this acts to foster the customer loyalty on the products. Architecture is the ability of a firm to bear different structures and networks that ensure it is well positioned to take on the competition provided by the other market players. Innovation gives a firm the ability to come with new products that are more appealing to the ever changing consumer tastes and preferences. A firm that is able to come up with new products will always enjoy a competitive advantage since its products will address the consumers presents tastes and preference.Advertising We will write a custom coursework sample on SLP internal analysis and SWOT Analysis specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Conclusion The Resource Based View is therefore and important management tool that is used to formulate a company’s strategy using the internal environment analysis. An internal environment will always provide the controllable parameter that an organization can manipulate to achieve its set targets and objective. References Barney, J. B. (1991). Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage. Journal of Management , 99-120. Comeford, R., Callaghan, d. (2011). Environmental, industry, and internal analysis. London: Prentice Hall. Connely, D. (2010). Strategy for Internal Environment. Henry, A. (2007). The Internal Environment of an Organization. London: Oxford University Press.

Frankenstein Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 5

Frankenstein - Essay Example The ability to do something, does not guarantee that one should simply do it. Some experiments should not be carried out just because of availability of the necessary skills and equipment. Scientists ought to pause, and think about implications of what they want to conduct. In addition, they should distinguish between the moral and immoral. Conducting an immoral medical practice causes definite harm to society. Therefore, availability of technology to perform an act should not be the only element that dictates scientific activities. In relation to Frankenstein, he had all the necessary materials required to create the monster. He continued to give it life without thinking of the implications the creature would have on society. Consequently, many people from Frankenstein family lost their lives. Others were blamed for the injustice, instead of Frankenstein or the monster, thus causing more pain to the society. Given that science can be seen as a body of knowledge that can give man God-like abilities, medical practitioners should employ ethics in the different experiments that they conduct. One of the medical ethics relates to ensuring that the doctor works in the best interest of the patient. The practitioner ought to protect the patient from any harm, and promote their comfort. However, Frankenstein did not uphold such care to the creature he created. The creature had life; it walked, communicated, and even demanded for its rights, just like a normal human being (Shelley, 2010). Given these traits, the creature needed a mate for it to lead a comfortable life. On the contrary, Frankenstein did not think about the happiness of the monster and its existence on earth. It did not have any companion, and creation dictates a male and a female for life to be complete. Failure to incorporate such ideas in his experiment devastated him, leading to misery. Consequently, medical practitioners must a lways weigh their actions, and

Essay about the provided story Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

About the provided story - Essay Example All these family excursions were great, but I had always wanted to visit California – Hollywood, Rodeo Drive, San Francisco†¦Alcatraz! I just don’t know that I was ready to completely move there. When I began at the school I struggled to meet new people and find my way within the school structure. I was convinced that there was something wrong with me, and that I had trouble meeting people because I was so extremely different that I would never be able to assimilate. Every day at 11:30 I would get a feeling of dread in my stomach knowing that I would soon have to go to lunch and amble awkwardly around, pretending that I actually had a group of people to eat with, and then subtly sit down by myself at a table outside, eating, and wishing that the next bell would just ring so I could slink away to Math class. Even the quadratic formula would beat this. Mysterious Disappearance I realized that eating by myself everyday and spending my weekends watching Full House re-r uns wasn’t the most ideal way to be spending the glory days of my youth. I became frustrated. When I would sit alone I would imagine the life I wish I had. I’d watch the football players laughing with cheerleaders at their table and think they were just lame anyways. I was smart. I thought about things like philosophy and books and Ernest Hemingway. So I’d continue eating my sandwich and watch other groups. One day as I was sitting there, observing people, I noticed two guys walking quickly away from the cafeteria, looking around like they were going to escape from prison or something, and then quickly disappear into the woods. I had no idea where they had gone but I was curious. The next day, after I went through the lunch line and got my hamburger, taitor tots, and milk, I walked around and then saw them standing by the vending machine talking. I had to figure out where they kept going. I sat near where they were standing and put on a happy demeanor. After a m oment they stopped talking and one of them asked me what was being sold for lunch. â€Å"Taitor tots,† I said. He laughed and then they walked off. A few moments later, to my great surprise, they came back and sat at the table with me and joked around for a bit. After they finished, they motioned to each other and said goodbye and then walked down the same path towards the woods that ran adjacent to the cafeteria. I knew they were going to enter the woods again. I still had no idea why. The next day at lunch I looked for them again, even sitting in the same place, but they weren’t there. I didn’t think much of it and the day after that forgot the incident had ever occurred. I decided I wasn’t Perry Mason and gradually lost interest. Fitting In This isn’t a story about not fitting in, however, and indeed, after a few weeks I started making an effort to talk to more people. I even met a friend name Franz. Franz was born in Austria and I thought his n ame was a little weird, but he was a cool guy and we both shared the same interests -- we were readers, played basketball, and could undeniably dominate all lesser-beings on the Playstation. Franz introduced me to his friends and eventually I moved to their table at lunch and began joking around and regaining the same social structure I had back in my hometown. The next semester I moved into the International Baccalaureate program at the school. My classes were a lot more difficult, but I appreciated the challenge and for awhile it